Investigating Bio-Diesel Production using Potash from Agricultural Wastes

By

Vincent Enontiemonria EFEOVBOKHAN B.Sc Tech. (Hons); M.Eng, MNSCh.E, MNSE, COREN REGD ENGR (CUGP060194)

Presented To

Department of Chemical Engineering

The application of potassium hydroxide (KOH) extracts from four different biomass materials: Water hyacinth, Coconut husk, ripe plantain peels and palm frond  in the trans-esterification of two vegetable oils;  refined rapeseed and crude jatropha oils has been carried out. Potassium hydroxide obtained from the ash of ripe plantain peels recorded the highest biodiesel conversion with both vegetable oils. The highest percentage conversion obtained with  rapeseed oil was 71.01% using 1g of KOH extract from ripe plantain ash at reaction temperature and time of 75oC and 4 hours respectively. Under the same reaction conditions, 1g of commercial caustic potash recorded  70.06% conversion of the rapeseed oil at the same reaction conditions. From the optimized batch process, 97.15% conversion was achieved  with crude jatropha oil using 1g caustic potash extract from ripe plantain peels ash; at reaction temperature and time of 83oC and 4  hours respectively. Under the same condition, the conversions of the oils to biodiesel using KOH  from coconut husk, palm fronds and water hyacinth  recorded  low  values of;  53.11%, 46.88% and 33.31% respectively. Generally, the percentage conversion increased with both time and temperature of trans-esterification of the vegetable oils using potassium hydroxide extracted from the ash of the agricultural waste materials. Using KOH from ripe plantain peels, the conversion increased from 75.20% at 83oC and 1 hour to 97.15% at 83oC and 4 hours while the conversion increased from 35.18% at 75oC and  1  hour  to 95.73% at 75oC and  4  hours. The Potash content recorded per g of the biomass materials  investigated was: palm fronds  (13.9%), coconut husk (17.5%) water hyacinth (18.9%), and ripe plantain peels (40.1%). These respective amounts represent the total recoverable KOH from the optimized extraction process of the ashes of the four biomass materials, at well defined  extraction temperatures of 30  - 50oC and  varied times of 1-6 hours as against  100oC (boiling water)  and 24  hours  employed  in the traditional extraction  method.  The cumulative weights of KOH obtained per  g of ash at the  different temperatures and times, increased progressively with water volume for the 1st and 2nd stages of extraction (100ml/200ml, 150ml/300ml and 200ml/400ml). The effectiveness in using 400ml water in two equal portions in the two stages of KOH extraction was about 9.3% better on the average than using the least volume of 200ml under the same conditions. To attain optimized extraction; 5-10 times the weight of ash is required in water for a given biomass ash extraction on a two- stage basis. 

TABLE OF CONTENTS                         Page
DECLARATION - - - - -      ii
CERTIFICATION - - - - -     iii
DEDICATION - - - - -    iv
ACKOWLEDGEMENT - - - - -   v
ABSTRACT - - - - -     viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - - -   x
LIST OF TABLES - - - - -     xx    
LIST OF FIGURES - - - - - xxiii
LIST OF PLATES - - -           xxxvi
LIST OF ACRONYMS - - - - -      xxxvii

CHAPTER ONE    INTRODUCTION - - - - -      1
11    Research background - - - - -   1
12    Statement of the Problem - - - - - 9
13    Aims/Objectives of Research - - -          10
14    The Specific Objectives - - -           10
15    Justification for the Research - - -          11
16    Scope of the Study - - - - - 11

CHAPTER TWO  LITERATURE REVIEW - - -         12
21    Biodiesel - - - - -   12
22    Advantages of Bio-Diesel over Petro Diesel - - -       17
23    Disadvantages of Biodiesel - - -           19
24    Cold Flow Properties of Biodiesel - - -         21
25    Test Parameters for Biodiesel - - -          22
251    Free & Total Glycerine - - -           22
252    Cetane Number - - - - - 23
253    Flash Point - - - - -    23
254    Total Acid Number - - - - - 23
255    Cloud and Pour Point - - - - - 23
256    Water and Sediment - - - - - 24
257    Visual Inspection - - - - -     24
258    Total Sulphur - - - - -   24
259    Kinematic Viscosity - - - - - 24
2510    Sulphated Ash - - - - - 25
2511    Copper Strip Corrosion - - -            25
2512    Distillation Temperature - - -            25
26    Raw Materials - - - - - 26
261     Jatropha Oil - - - - -    27
262    Water Hyacinth - - - - - 31
263    Water Transportation Challenges: - - -          32
(i)    Irrigation, Hydropower and Water Supply Systems Challenges - - - 32
(ii)     Flooding Problems - - - - - 32
(iii)     Evapo-Transpiration Challenges - - -          32
(iv)     Fishing Related Challenges - - -            33
(v)     Extinction of biodiversity - - - - -          33
(vi)     Water Quality Challenges - - -            33
264     Solutions and Control of Water Hyacinth - - -        33
(i)    Biological Control - - - - - 34
(ii)     Chemical Control - - - - - 34
(iii)     Physical Control - - - - -   34
265     Possible Practical Applications of Water Hyacinth - - -      35
(i)    Paper - - - - -     35
 (ii)    Fibre Board - - - - -    35
(iii)    Yarn and Rope - - - - - 35
(iv)    Basket Work - - - - -    36
(v)    Charcoal Briquetting - - - - - 36
(vi)    Biogas Production - - - - - 36
(vii)    Water Purification - - - - - 36
(viii)    Animal Fodder - - - - - 37
(ix)    Fish Feed - - - - -    37
(x)    Application of Water Hyacinth in Biodiesel Production - - -    37
27    Coconut Husk - - - - - 38
271    The Many Uses of the Coconut - - -          40
(i)    Building Materials - - - - - 41
(ii)     Chemicals - - - - -    41
(iii)    Agricultural Value - - - - - 41         
(iv)     Novelties and Others - - - - - 41
(v)    Application of Coconut Husk in Biodiesel Production - - -    41
2 8    Palm Fronds - - - - -    44
29    Ripe Plantain Peels - - - - -    46
291    Application of Palm Fronds in Biodiesel Production - - -     47
210    Recovery of Ethanol from Ogogoro - - -      49
211    Extraction of Potassium Hydroxide from Biomass Sources - - -    52
212    Catalyst - - - - -    54 

CHAPTER THREE    METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH      56
31    Apparatuses, Materials Sourcing and Handling - - -      56
311    Materials Sourcing - - - - - 56
312    Apparatuses - - - - -    56
32    Extraction of KOH - - - - -   56
321     Raw Materials Preparation - - -            57
(1)    Preparation of Water Hyacinth - - -          57
(2)    Preparation of Coconut Husks and Plantain peels - - -     57
(3)    Palm Frond Leaves - - - - -   57
322      Extraction of Procedures - - -            57
33    Obtaining Ethanol from Ogogoro - - -          62
34    Catalyst/Ethanol Mixture - - - - - - - -    62
35    Jatropha Oil - - - - -   62
351    Physical Properties of Jatropha Oil - - -          63
(a)    Density/Specific Gravity - - -            63
bi)    Saponification Value of Oil - - -           63
(i)     Reagents/materials - - - - - 63   
(ii)     Apparatus - - - - -   63
(iii)     Procedure: - - - - -   63
(iv)     Calculations - - - - -   64
(c)     Iodine Value of Oil - - - - - 64
(i)    Reagents/materials - - - - - 64
(ii)     Apparatus - - - - -    64
(iii)     Procedures - - - - -    64
(iv)     Calculations - - - - -    65
(d)     Acid Value of Oil - - - - - 65
(i)     Reagents - - - - -   65
(ii)     Apparatus - - - - -    65
(iii)     Procedures - - - - -   65
(iv)    Calculations - - - - -    66
(e)    Water Content - - - - -   66
(i)     Reagents - - - - -   66
(ii)     Apparatus - - - - -   66
(iii)     Procedures - - - - -   66
361    Calculating the Molecular Weight of Jatropha Oil - - -      67  
362    Calculating the Molecular Weight of Rapeseed Oil - - -          68   
37    Experimental Designs - - - - - 69
38    Instrumentation - - - - - 73  
381    Experimental Set-Up - - - - - 73
382    Flow Diagrams - - - - - 76
383    Major Processes at Each Stage of Bio-Diesel Production - - -    77  
(i)    Stage 1  Catalyst Preparation - - -            77
(ii)    Stage 2 Feedstock Preparation - - -         77
(iii)    Stage 3  Trans-esterification - - -            77
(iv)     Stage 4   Separation Process - - -           77
(v)     Stage 5   Product Purification - - -            77
(vi)    Stage 6   Drying - - - - - 77
39         Biodiesel Analysis - - - - - 78  
391     Characterization - - - - - 78

CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS  79
41    Biomass and Agricultural wastes Sources - - -        79
42     Effect of Temperature and Volume of Water used - - -     88
421    Potash from Coconut Husks - - -           91
422    Potash from Water Hyacinth (shoot) - - -         93
423    Potash from Palm Fronds  ` - - -        97
43     The Effect of Time on Potash Extract - - -     100
44     Effect of ash density and Temperature - - -     104
45     Observed Trends in the Second Stage Extraction - - -   106
46     Extraction methods - - -           116
47    Characterization of Biodiesel - - -        117
48     1HNMR Spectra for Rapeseed Oil and its Biodiesel - - - 121
481 (A)  Spectra of Pure Rapeseed Oil - - -       122
481 (B)  Spectra of Rapeseed Biodiesel - - -        123
482  1HNMR Spectra for Jatropha Oil and its Biodiesel - - -   123
49    Bio-Diesel from  the Potash of Various Biomass Ashes and Pure Caustic Potash - - -         131
491      Spectra of Biodiesel from Crude Jatropha Oil, October 2012          135
492      Spectra Of Biodiesel from Crude Jatropha Oil, November 2012           137
410     Kinetics of Trans-Esterification of Jatropha Oil - - -   155
 
CHAPTER FIVE:  RESEARCH CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS - - - - -     162
51  Research Conclusions - - - - - - - -     162
52   Research Recommendations - - - - - - - -        164
53  Research Contributions to Knowledge - - -            164
REFERENCES - - - - -      166



APPENDIX A - - - - -     176
A    CALCULATIONS - - -            176
A1     Saponification Value of Jatropha Oil - - - - -     176
A2     Iodine Value of Jatropha Oil - - - - -        
176A3   Acid Value of Jatropha Oil - - -          177
A4    Water (Moisture) Content of Jatropha Oil - - - - -        177
A5    Calculating the Molecular Weight of Jatropha Oil - - - - -
178A6   Calculating the Molecular Weight of Rapeseed Oil - - - - -
180A7   Calculating The Specific Gravity of Ogogoro - - -    181
APPENDIX B - - - - -    183
B1    Tables of Values of Extracted Ashes of Biomass and Waste Agricultural    
    Materials - - - - - - - -     183  
APPENDIX C - - - - -    189
C1  Figures Showing the Variations of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from
Biomass /Agricultural Wastes - - - - -    189


LIST OF TABLES
Table: - - - - - - - - Page   
Table 11  World Oil Producers with Declining Reserves - - -    3
Table 12  Biodiesel Output per Year from Different Countries - - -           6-8
Table 21  Fatty acid composition of Jatropha curcas from Different Sources - - -           29  
Table 22  Physical Property of Jatropha Curcas from Different Sources - - - - -      30
Table 23  Composition of coconut husk - - -     43
Table 24:    Composition of coir dust - - - - - 43
Table 25   Micro-Elements in Date Palm Leaf at Different Growth Stages - - - - 45
Table 26  Ash and Alkali Contents of Musa Species - - - - - - 48
Table 31:  Extraction of Ash with 200mL Water at Varied Temperature and Time - - -    59 
Table 32:  Extraction of Ash with 150mL Water at Varied Temperature and Time - - -   60
Table 33  Extraction of Ash with 100mL Water at Varied Temperature and Time - - -    61  
Table 34   Fatty acid composition of Jatropha curcas - - - - - - 67
Table 35  Fatty acid composition of Rapeseed oil - - - - - -     68
Table 36  Trans-esterification Reactions using Rapeseed Oil and KOH from  Different Sources at Varied Reaction Time - - - - - - -          70
Table 37  Trans-esterification Reactions using Crude Jatropha Oil and KOH from Different Sources at Varied Reaction Time - - - - - - 71
Table 41:   Ripe plantain Ash Extraction at Varied Temperature (30  -50oC) and Time (1-3 hrs) - - - - - -          80
Table 42  Palm Fronds Ash Extraction at Varied  Temperature (30  -50oC)  and Time(1-3 hrs) - - -      81    
Table 43  Water Hyacinth (Shoot) Ash Extraction at Varied Temperature (30 -50oC) and Time (1-3 hrs) - - -      82
Table 44  Coconut husk Ash Extraction at Varied Temperature (30 -50 oC) andVolume (100- 200mL) - - - - -       83
Table 45:   Ripe Plantain Ash Density (at 30 oC - 50oC) Vs Potash Recovered in a Two-Stage Extraction Process at Different Extraction Time - - - - -         84
Table 46:    Chemical Shift, Areas and Percentage Conversion from Biodiesel Spectra - - - - 85-86  
Table 47  Conversion of Jatropha Oil to Bio-Diesel at 75oC - - -   158
Table 48  Conversion of Jatropha Oil to Bio-Diesel at 83oC - - -   160
Table A1   Fatty Acid Composition of Jatropha Curcas - - -      178
Table A2   Fatty Acid Composition of Rapeseed Oil - - -     180
Table A7   Percentages by Volume and Densities of Ethanol after Distillation          182
Table B1  Tables of Values of Extracted Ashes of Biomass and Waste Agricultural Materials - - - - - - - -    183
Table B2  Total Extracted Potash vs Initial Ash Density from Ripe Plantain at Different Temperatures and Extraction Times - - -       184
Table B3  Water Hyacinth (shoot) Ash Density Vs Potash in a Two-Stage Extraction Process at Different Extraction Times and Temperatures - - - 185
Table B4  Palm Fronds Ash Density Vs Potash Recovered in a Two-Stage Extraction Process
at Different Extraction Times and Temperatures - - -      186
Table B5  Table B5: Physical and Chemical Properties of Jatropha Oil - - - 187
Table B6  Drying Of Distilled Ethanol From Ogogoro Calcium Oxide At 4 Hours Contact Time - - - - - 188

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure - - - - - - - -   Page  
Figure 21  Bio-diesel Life Cycle as Environmentally Friendly Fuel - - -   18
Figure 22  Life Cycle of Carbon-Dioxide (CO2) for Biofuel - - -      18
Figure 21   Examples of Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acid Structures - - 31   
Figure 31  Flow Diagrams showing the major stages in bio-diesel production process           76
Figure 41  Variation of extracted potash (g) with Volume of Water (mL) from the Ash of Ripe Plantain peels at 300C and Varied Extraction Times - - -          88  
Figure 42  Variation of extracted potash (g) with Volume of Water (mL) from the Ash of Ripe Plantain peels at 400C and Varied Extraction Times - - 89  
Figure 43  Variation of extracted potash (g) with Volume of Water (mL) from the Ash of Ripe Plantain peels at 500C and Varied Extraction Times - - - 90  
Figure 44  Variation of Extracted Potash (g) with Volume of Water (mL) from Coconut Husk Ash at 300C and 2 hrs Extraction Time  at Different Temperature - - - - -    92
Figure 45  Variation of Extracted Potash (g) with Volume of Water (mL) from Ash of Water Hyacinth (Sh00t) and at 300C and at Different Temperature - - - - -    94
Figure 46  Variation of Extracted Potash (g) with Volume of Water (mL)  from Ash of Water Hyacinth (Sh00t) and at 400C and at Different Temperature - - - - -    95
Figure 47  Variation of Extracted Potash (g) with Volume of Water (mL) from Ash of Water
Hyacinth (Sh00t) and at 500C and at Different Temperature - - -   96
Figure 48  Variation of Extracted Potash (g) with Volume of Water (ml)  from Palm Fronds
Ash at 400C and at Different Temperature - - - - - - - -     98
Figure 49  Variation of Extracted Potash (g) with Volume of Water (ml)  from Palm Fronds
Ash at 500C and at Different Temperature - - - - - - - -    99
Figure 410:   Variation of Extracted Potash from Ripe Plantain Ash with Time (hr) and Volume
(ml) at 500C - - - 101
Figure 411:   Variation of Extracted Potash from Ripe Plantain Ash with Time (hr) and Volume
(ml) at 400C - - - - - 102
Figure 412:   Variation of Extracted Potash from Ripe Plantain Ash with Time (hr) and Volume
(ml) at 300C - - - - -         103
Figure 413:   Total Potash vs Initial Ash Density from Ripe Plantain at Different Temperatures
and Constant Extraction Time of 1 Hour - - - - - 105
Figure 414:   Total Extracted Potash vs Initial Ash Density from Ripe Plantain at Different
Temperatures and Constant Extraction Time of 2 Hours - - -       105
Figure 415:   Total Extracted Potash vs Initial Ash Density from Ripe Plantain at Different
Temperatures and Constant Extraction Time of 3 Hours - - -       106
Figure 416:   Extracted Potash vs Initial Ash Density from Ripe Plantain at 50oC and Different Extraction Times - - - - -       107
Figure 417:   Extracted Potash vs Initial Ash Density from Ripe Plantain at 40oC and Different Extraction Times - - -           108
Figure 418:   Extracted Potash vs Initial Ash Density from Ripe Plantain at 30oC and Different Extraction Times - - -           109
Figure 419:   Extracted Potash vs Initial Ash Density from Water Hyacinth (Shoot) at 50oC and Different Extraction Times - - -          110
Figure 420:   Extracted Potash vs Initial Ash Density from Water Hyacinth (Shoot) at 40oC and Different Extraction Times - - -         111
Figure 421:   Extracted Potash vs Initial Ash Density from Water Hyacinth (Shoot) at 30oC and Different Extraction Times - - -         112
Figure 422:  Extracted Potash vs Initial Ash Density from Palm Fronds at 50oC and Different Extraction Times - - -           113
Figure 423:   Extracted Potash vs Initial Ash Density from Palm Fronds at 40oC and Different Extraction Times - - -           114
Figure 424:   Extracted Potash vs Initial Ash Density from Palm Fronds at 30oC and Different Extraction Times - - -           115
Figure 425 (a)  1HNMR Spectrum Sunflower oil - - -      120
Figure 425 (b)  1HNMR of Partially Converted Sunflower oil - - - 120
Figure 425 (c)  1HNMR of Completely Converted Sunflower oil to Biodiesel         120
Figure 426 (a)  1HNMR of pure /refined rapeseed oil: Untreated - - - 122
Figure 426 (b)  Magnified chemical shift regions of refined rapeseed oil (untreated)     122      
Figure 427 (a)   1HNMR of Rapeseed Biodiesel (1) - - -           123
Figure 427 (b)  Chemical shift regions for Rapeseed Biodiesel (1) - - -     123
Figure 428 (a)  1HNMR of Rapeseed Biodiesel (2) - - -     124
Figure 428 (b)  Magnified chemical shift regions for Rapeseed Biodiesel (2)         124
Figure 429 (a)    1HNMR of Rapeseed Biodiesel (3) - - -      125
Figure 429 (b)   Magnified chemical shift regions for Rapeseed Biodiesel (3)         125
Figure 430 (a)   1HNMR of Rapeseed Biodiesel (4) - - -      126
Figure 430 (b)   Magnified chemical shift regions for Rapeseed Biodiesel (4) - - -      126
Figure 431 (a)  1HNMR of Rapeseed Biodiesel (5) - - - - - - - -      127
Figure 431 (b)   Magnified chemical shift regions for Rapeseed Biodiesel (5)         127
Figure 432 (a)   1HNMR of Rapeseed Biodiesel (6) - - -      128
Figure 432 (b)  Magnified chemical shift regions for Rapeseed Biodiesel (6)         128
Figure 433 (a)  1HNMR of Rapeseed Biodiesel (7) - - -     129
Figure 433 (b)   Magnified chemical shift regions for Rapeseed Biodiesel (7)         129
Figure 434 (a)  1HNMR of Rapeseed Biodiesel (8), - - -     130
Figure 434 (b)   Magnified chemical shift regions for Rapeseed Biodiesel (8)         130
Figure 435 (a)  1HNMR of 102312-1 Sample 0: Crude Jatropha oil - - -        135
Figure 435 (b)   Magnified chemical shift regions for crude jatropha oil           135
Figure 436 (a)   1H NMR of Jatropha Biodiesel (102312-2): sample 11 - - -         136
Figure 436 (b)   Magnified chemical shift regions for jatropha biodiesel sample 11         136
Figure 437 (a)  1HNMR of 112012-1 Sample 0: Crude Jatropha oil - - -    137
Figure 437 (b)   Magnified chemical shift regions for 112012-1 Sample 0 Crude   
      Jatropha oil - - -            137
Figure 438 (a)   1H NMR of jatropha biodiesel (112012-3): sample 12          138
Figure 438 (b)  Magnified chemical shift regions for crude jatropha   biodiesel      
      (1120123): sample 12 - - - - - - - -         138
Figure 439 (a)  1H NMR of jatropha biodiesel (112012-5): sample 14           139
Figure 439 (b)   Magnified chemical shift regions for crude jatropha biodiesel    
      (112012-5): sample 14 - - - - - -         139
Figure 440 (a)  1H NMR of jatropha biodiesel (112012-7): sample 16 - - - 140
Figure 440 (b)   Magnified chemical shift regions for crude jatropha biodiesel    
      (112012-7): sample 16 - - -          140
Figure 441 (a)  1H NMR of Jatropha Biodiesel (112012-4): sample 13 - - - - -   141
Figure 441 (b)   Magnified chemical shift regions for crude jatropha   biodiesel    
      (1120124): sample 13 - - - - -         141
Figure 442 (a)   1H NMR of Jatropha Biodiesel (112012-6): sample 15          142
Figure 442 (b)   Magnified chemical shift regions for crude jatropha   biodiesel    
      (1120126): sample 15 - - -           142
Figure 443 (a)  1H NMR of Jatropha Biodiesel (112612-1): sample 19          143
Figure 443 (b)   Magnified chemical shift regions for crude jatropha   biodiesel    
      (112612-1): sample 19 - - - - -         143
Figure 444 (a)  1H NMR of Jatropha Biodiesel (112112-1): sample 17 - - -        144
Figure 444 (b)  Magnified chemical shift regions for crude jatropha   biodiesel    
      (112112-1): sample 17 - - - 144
Figure 445 (a)  1H NMR of Jatropha Biodiesel (112112-2): sample 18 - - -    145
Figure 445 (b)   Magnified chemical shift regions for crude jatropha   biodiesel    
      (1121122): sample 18 - - -            145
Figure 446 (a)     1H NMR of Jatropha Biodiesel (112612-2): sample 20           146
Figure 446 (b)   Magnified chemical shift regions for crude jatropha   biodiesel     
      (1126122): sample 20 - - - - -      146      
Figure 447 (a)  1H NMR of Jatropha Biodiesel (112712-2): sample 23           147
Figure 447 (b)  Magnified chemical shift regions for crude jatropha biodiesel   
      (1127122): sample 23 - - -   147
Figure 448 (a)  1H NMR of Jatropha Biodiesel (112612-3): sample 21           148
Figure 448 (b   Magnified chemical shift regions for crude jatropha        
- - -     biodiesel (112612-3): sample 21 - - - - -   148
Figure 449(a)   1H NMR of Jatropha Biodiesel (112712-1): sample 22           149    
Figure 449 (b)   Magnified chemical shift regions for crude jatropha   biodiesel    
      (112712-1): sample 22 - - -           149
Figure 450 (a)  1H NMR of Jatropha Biodiesel (112712-3): sample 24           150
Figure 450 (b)   Magnified chemical shift regions for crude jatropha   biodiesel    
      (112712-3): sample 24 - - -            150
Figure 451 (a)   1H NMR of Jatropha Biodiesel (112712-4): sample 25 - - -        151
Figure 451 (b)  Magnified chemical shift regions for crude jatropha biodiesel    
      (112712-4): sample 25 - - -            151
Figure 452 (a)   1H NMR of Jatropha Biodiesel (112912-1): sample 26           152
Figure 452 (b)  Magnified chemical shift regions for crude jatropha   biodiesel       
      (1129121): sample 26 - - - - -            152
Figure 453 (a)  1H NMR of Jatropha Biodiesel (112912-2): sample 30 - - - - -    153
Figure 453 (b)  Magnified chemical shift regions for crude jatropha   biodiesel    
      (112912-2): sample 30 - - -            153
Figure 454 (a)   1H NMR of Jatropha Biodiesel (112912-3): sample 32 - - - - - 154
Figure 454 (b)   Magnified chemical shift regions for crude jatropha   biodiesel    
      (1129123): sample 32 - - -           154
Figure 455  Psuedo First Order Plot for Conversion of Jatropha oil to Ethyl Biodiesel at 75 deg C, (KOH from Ripe Plantain peels) - - - - -            158
Figure 456  Psuedo First Order Plot for Conversion of Jatropha oil to Ethyl Biodiesel at 83   
deg C, (KOH from Ripe Plantain peels) - - - - - 160
Figure C1:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from  
the Ash of Ripe Plantain Peels at 300C and 1 hr Extraction Time - - - - - 189
Figure C2:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from the Ash of Ripe
Plantain Peels at 300C and 2 hrs Extraction Time - - -         190
Figure C3:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from the Ash of Ripe
Plantain Peels at 300C and 3 hrs Extraction Time - - - - -         190
Figure C4:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from the Ash of Ripe
Plantain Peels at 400C and 1 hr Extraction Time - - - - -           191
Figure C5:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from the Ash of Ripe
Plantain Peels at 400C and 2 hrs Extraction Time - - - - -         191
Figure C6:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from the Ash of Ripe
Plantain Peels at 400C and 3 hrs Extraction Time - - -         192
Figure C7:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from the Ash of Ripe
Plantain Peels at 500C and 1hr Extraction Time - - - - -    192
Figure C8:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from the Ash of Ripe
Plantain Peels at 500C and 2 hrs Extraction Time - - - - -    193
Figure C9:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water  (mL) from the Ash of Ripe
Plantain Peels at 500C and 3 hrs Extraction Time - - -          193
Figure C10:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from Coconut Husk
Ash at 300C and 2 hrs Extraction Time - - -            194
Figure C11:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from Coconut Husk
Ash at 400C and 2 hrs Extraction Time - - -            194
Figure C12:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from Coconut
Husk Ash at 500C and 2 hrs Extraction Time - - - 195
Figure C13:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from the Ash of Water
Hyacinth (Shoot) at 300C and 1 hr Extraction Time - - -         195
Figure C14:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from the Ash of Water
Hyacinth (Shoot) at 300C and 2 hrs Extraction Time - - -         196
Figure C15:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (ml) from the Ash of Water
Hyacinth (Shoot) at 300C and 3 hrs Extraction Time - - -          196
Figure C16:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (ml) from the Ash of Water
Hyacinth (Shoot) at 400C and 1 hr Extraction Time - - -          197
Figure C17:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (ml) from the Ash of Water
Hyacinth (Shoot) at 400C and 2 hrs Extraction Time - - -          198
Figure C18:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (ml) from the Ash of Water
Hyacinth (Shoot) at 400C and 3 hrs Extraction Time - - -          198
Figure C19:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (ml) from the Ash of Water
Hyacinth (Shoot) at 500C and 1 hr Extraction Time - - -          199
Figure C20:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (ml) from the Ash of Water
Hyacinth (Shoot) at 500C and 2 hrs Extraction Time - - -         199
Figure C21:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from the Ash of Water
Hyacinth (Shoot) at 500C and 3 hrs Extraction Time - - -         199
Figure C22:   Variation of Extracted Potash (g) with Volume of Water (mL) from Palm Fronds
Ash at 300C and 1 hr Extraction Time - - -            200
Figure C23:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from Palm Fronds Ash
at 300C and 2 hrs Extraction Time - - - - -   200
Figure C24:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from Palm Fronds Ash
at 300C and 3 hrs Extraction Time - - - - - 201
Figure C25:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from Palm Fronds Ash
at 400C and 1 hr Extraction Time - - - - - 201
Figure C26:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from Palm Fronds Ash
at 400C and 2 hrs Extraction Time - - - - - 202
Figure C27:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from Palm Fronds Ash
at 400C and 3 hrs Extraction Time - - - - - 202
Figure C28:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from Palm Fronds Ash
at 500C and 1 hr Extraction Time - - - - - 203
Figure C29:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from Palm Fronds Ash
at 500C and 2 hrs Extraction Time - - - - - 203
Figure C30:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Volume of Water (mL) from Palm Fronds Ash
at 500C and 3 hrs Extraction Time - - - - -   204
Figure C31:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Time (hr) from the Ash of Water Hyacinth
(Root) at 500C and 200mL of Water - - - - - 204
Figure C32:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Time (hr) from the Ash of Water Hyacinth
(Root) at 500C and 100mL of Water - - - - - 205
Figure C33:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Time (hr) from the Ash of Water Hyacinth
(Root) at 400C and 200mL of Water - - - - - 205
Figure C34:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Time (hr) from the Ash of Water Hyacinth
(Root) at 400C and 100mL of Water - - - - - 206
Figure C35:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Time (hr) from the Ash of Water Hyacinth
(Root) at 300C and 200mL of Water - - - - - 206
Figure C36:   Variation of Extracted Potash with  Time (hr) from the Ash of Water Hyacinth
(Root) at 300C and 100mL of Water - - - - - 207
Figure C37:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Time (hr) from Ripe Plantain Ash at 500
C and 200ml of Water - - - - - - - -   207
Figure C38:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Time (hr) from Ripe Plantain Ash at 500
C and 150ml of Water - - - - -      208
Figure C39:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Time (hr) from Ripe Plantain Ash at 500
C and 100ml of Water - - - - -      208
Figure C40:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Time (hr) from Ripe Plantain Ash at 400
C and 150ml of Water - - - - -      209
Figure C41:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Time (hr) from Ripe Plantain Ash at 400
C and 100ml of Water - - - - -      209
Figure C42:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Time (hr) from Ripe Plantain Ash at 300
C and 200ml of Water - - - - -      210
Figure C43:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Time (hr) from Ripe Plantain Ash at 300
C and 150ml of Water - - - - -       210
Figure C44:   Variation of Extracted Potash with Time (hr) from Ripe Plantain Ash at 300
C and 100ml of Water - - - - -      211


LIST OF PLATES
Plate: - - - - - - - -   Page
Plate I   Biodiesel Production from Jatropha Oil and Potash Extract from  
Agricultural wastes - - - - -         73
Plate II   Biodiesel Settling and Washing Stage - - -        74
Plate III   Distillation of ethanol from Ogogoro - - -         75

LIST OF ACRONYMS
IEA    International Energy Agency
ASPO    Association for the Study of Peak oil
EIA    Energy Information Administration  
UCO    Used Cooking Oil
FCT    Federal Capital Territory
GSM    Global System Mobile
PME    Palm Oil Methyl Ester  
FAEE    Fatty Acid Ethyl Ester
SOx    Sulpur Oxide Gases
CO2 Carbon (iv) Oxide (Carbon dioxide)
ASTM   American Society of Testing of Materials
FFA    Free Fatty Acids  
KOH    Potassium Hydroxide (Caustic Potash)
NaOH    Sodium Hydroxide
CM    Centimeter
MM    Millimeter
CaO    Calcium Oide
K2O    Potassium Oxide
HCL    Hydrochloric Acid
KI    Potassium Iodide
oC    Degree Celsius  
mL    Millilitre
hr    Time (hour)
AW    Ash Samples Extracted with 200mL Water
BW    Ash Samples Extracted with 150mL Water
CW    Ash Samples Extracted with 100mL Water
IV    Iodine Value
SV    Saponification Value
AV    Acid Value
Wc    Water Content
CH KOH  KOH Obtained from Coconut Husk Ash
Pl KOH  KOH Obtained from Plantain Ash
Pa KOH  KOH Obtained from Palm Fronds Ash
WH KOH  KOH Obtained from Water Hyacinth
âˆÂ� −CH2  The Methylene Group Hydrogen Atoms that are Adjacent to the Carbonyl Group
EE-CH2  The Ethyl Ester CH2 Hydrogen Atoms  
IEE CH2   The Integration Value of the Ethyl Ester Peak  
IâˆÂ�E CH2   The Integration Value of the Methylene Group that Is Adjacent to the Carbonyl
CEE        Ethyl Ester Coversion
VER  Ripe Plantain Peels Ash Extracted at Varied Temperature (30 -50 oC) and Time (1-3 hrs)   
VEP    Palm Fronds Ash Extracted at Varied Temperature (30 -50 oC) and Time (1-3 hrs)   
VEW  Water Hyacinth (Shoot) Ash Extracted  at Varied Temperature (30  -50 oC) and Time (1-3 hrs)
VEC  Coconut husk Ash Extracted at varied temperature (30  -50 oC) and Volume (100-200mL
1H NMR  Hydrogen Atom Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
ðÂ�‘¥ðÂ�Â�´ðÂ�‘"    Final Conversion  
ðÂ�‘Â�ðÂ�Â�´ , V    The Number of Moles of A within the Reactor of Volume, V
ðÂ�Â�¶ðÂ�Â�´        Uniform Concentration of the Reactant A within the System
 ðÂ�‘ŸðÂ�Â�´, K     Rate of Reaction or Conversion of Jatropha Oil and K Reaction rate constant