Abstract
The gradual shift from the offline to online communication such as text messaging has given way to innovative
language-short forms whose morph-syntactic aspects have permeated the linguistic characters of the texters. For
about a decade now, there exist a growing body of research on mobile phone text messaging by linguists but
only very few have been done in the area of morpho-syntax. The work therefore, examines the aspects of
morphology and syntax found in SMS text messages. It adopts a combination of Chomsky (1957)
Transformational and Silverstein (1976) Meta pragmatic theories. Through the move-a rule and the pragmatic
method of analysis, the study discovers that there are morpho-syntactic variations among texters which are
problematic to formal English. It also reveals that movement of constituents from one slot to the other is a
common feature in text messages though some of such movements violates move-a rules. Other syntactic
differences are reflected in form of subject/agent, object, determiner, to-infinitive deletions/omissions. Wordorder
violations, contractions, abbreviations, acronyms, compounding, blends and lack of punctuation also
characterize morpho-syntactic elements in SMS texts. Morphologically, there is no hard and fast rule with
regards to the users’ choice of letters in abbreviation. Texters use a combination of letters and numbers in their
text messages and in some cases they use only numerals. The texters obviously down-play the orthographic and
syntactic rules of the formal English language for their convenience.
Keywords: SMS texts, Nigeria, mobile phone, morpho-syntactic analysis.
1.0 Introduction
Language has been an integral part of communication and human beings being compulsive communicators
continue to find new ways of communication in an attempt to bridge the distance between individuals. Internet
technology has greatly influenced human life especially in the area of communication. Following the wave of the
technology, Wiki (2008) notes that there is an overwhelming access to different forms of media with an increase
in interconnectedness of peoples and races around the entire world. According to Adejub (2010:2), "the entire
world comprising six continents and many countries of about 6,881,800,000 (as the estimated population United
States Census Bureau) has been reduced to a global village through the dynamism of communication with the aid
of information technology (ICT)." ICT is a term used to refer to a range of technologies for gathering, storing,
retrieving, processing, analyzing and transmitting information. The SMS (short message service) which serves as
the latest way of quick communication since the invention of SMS texts came alongside with the global
technology Lexemes are used to facilitate the effectiveness of this device. The effectiveness of this medium of
communication depends on the appropriate combination of the words it carries, and in the combination of these
words lie what is known as the message. This communication technique is currently in use in all areas of lifeoffices,
schools, markets, homes, advertisements, churches, etc. The component service (the phone) is unique for
its smallness and mobility. Due to the smallness, there is a limited space which leaves subscribers no choice
other than pursue simple sentence structures and other language short-forms to enable them exhaust their
message. Crystal (2008) contributing to the small character space of the mobile phone contends that subscribers
have created new linguistic forms to enable them maximize the available space and at the same time, make sure
they say all that is to be said to the understanding of the receiver. Supporting this view, Rafi (2010) observes that
through the new written conventions, texters have developed a written form of sounds that replaces the ability to
hear spoken utterances. The study therefore, seeks to examine the morpho-syntactic analysis of the innovative
language-form (Text messaging).
1.1 Methodology
The sources of data for our analysis comprise the text messages sent and received by the students of the
University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Our choice of area of study is guided by the fact that University of Nigeria,
Nsukka is a federal university where the students comprise peoples from different tribes of the nation. Data was
collected from fifty University students comprising both male and female. A total of seventy-five messages
(consisting of educational, seasonal, love, religious and other messages that express well wishes) were collected
from the participants whose messages were taken in confidence. This guarantees the researcher’s permission to
analyze the messages. The samples of the data are found in the Appendix.
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2. SMS Text Messaging: An Overview
The Short Message Service (SMS) is the part of a phone, web or mobile communication system used globally for
the exchange of short text messages between discussants. SMS according to Oladoye (2011:16) was first used in
December 1992 by a 22-year old named Neil Papworth. He says that the concept of SMS was developed by
Friedhelm Hillebrand, Bernard Ghillebaert and Oculy Silaban in 1984, in the Franco-German GSM cooperation.
Since the invention, the mobile telephone has been the latest way to communicate quickly. Text messaging is a
general term that is used to refer to the short written messages usually sent through phone and other portable
devices over a network. Ong’onda (2011:1) observes that the terms ‘text messaging’ or just ‘texting’ refers to the
brief typed messages sent using the Short Message Service (SMS) of mobile/cell phones, personal digital
assistants (PDAs), smart phones or web browsers. Uhunmwangho (2009:27) defined a text message as "any
linguistic event, usually a written form of speech that is imbued with meaning". Doring (2002:7) notes that
"SMS communication allows for a reasonable use of syntactic and lexical short forms, which save character
space, or touches of the handset keys, as compared with using the full forms of words". In the words of Rafi
(2010:3) it pursues simple sentence structures for communication. They also make use of written sound of words
and in other cases bring code mixing into it. Rafi further observes that SMS syntactic and lexical choices by the
texters are not so different from a child language; for instance a child expresses his feelings through simple
present progressive tense e.g. mom eating for ‘Mom is eating’ and Eating for ‘I am eating’
The equipment in its uniqueness affords most texters a much economized means of communication (Habluetzel
2007), (Thurlow 2003) and (Thurlow and Poff 2011). The Short message Service gives the subscriber the
advantage of choosing a specific number of words that would communicate comprehensively, but briefly, with
minimum cost- Chiluwa (2007:96). Due to the inconveniences caused by the limitation in the time and space that
comes along with the Short Message Service, texters are forced to find new ways for sending text messages.
Letters and numbers are also often combined (or used alone) for compression and convenience. Discussing on
the brevity of the electronic discourse, (Crystal 2001), (Hard af Sagerstad 2002) and (Thurlow 2003) note that
the technical restrictions of text messaging have led to the development of language short forms in SMS
communication.
The sender of a text message is known as a texter. SMS text service itself has different colloquialisms depending
on the region in that it may simply be referred to as a text in North America, India, Australia, Nigeria etc. Our
area of study geographically is therefore, morpho-syntactic analysis of SMS text messaging in Nigeria.
2.1 Nigeria and the SMS Texts
The global technology for Mobile communication notes Alabi (2010a) was introduced in Nigeria in the year
2001 and following the inception, he observes that SMS text messaging has become a major medium of passing
across information from one person to another irrespective of the distance between the ‘sender’ and ‘receiver’.
MTN, which happened to be the first GSM Company in Nigeria, commenced its commercial services in August
2001. In the words of Bodomo (2010:110) mobile phone in Nigeria was introduced in 2001 with the evolution of
Global System for Mobile Communication which two people or more exchange messages by coding and
decoding texts received and sent from their cell phones". Oladoye writes that the commencement brought the
Short Message Service (SMS) to limelight in the Nigerian communication system; ever since then, text
messaging has taken different turns. SMS text messaging as used by modern handsets is a part of the Global
System for Mobile communication (GSM), as a means of sending messages of more than 160 characters to and
from GSM mobile handsets. In Nigeria, most SMS messages are mobile - to - mobile text messages, although the
standard supports other types of broadcast messaging as well. Linguists and scholars of related fields have
conducted researches on the general use of SMS text messaging since it became a part of the Global System of
communication in Nigeria. Such scholars include: Chiluwa (2007), Egbe (2009), Uhunmwangho (2009), Alabi
(2010ab), Adejub (2010) Oladoye (2011), etc. Chiluwa focused on the effects of the limited interface allowed by
the SMS to the users and the Nigerianess of SMS messages in English. Egbe spoke elaborately on the varying
possibilities offered by text messages and acknowledges that many users sending greetings at Christmas, Easter,
Sallah, anniversaries, wedding ceremonies or events are no longer by the use of cards but through text messages
by the mobile handset. Even invitations to events, meetings and high powered gatherings are sent through the
mobile discourse. Oladoye (2011:46) discussing on the importance of the SMS as a means of communication in
Nigeria comments as follows:
SMS text messaging has become a vital part of our communication system in Nigeria. It serves as a cheaper
alternative for many Nigerians today, in which they pay less, as against the higher costs on oral phone calls. It
has found a place for itself and it has come to stay. Various new devices are now developed to promote its usage
e.g. Blackberries and I-phones. In Nigeria today, people receive invitations to employment interviews, warnings,
announcements, etc via text messages. SMS text messaging is moving fast on a wide range in the Nigerian
communication system and even in the whole of Africa
From the foregoing, there seem to exist a growing body of research on mobile phone texts messaging by
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linguists but only very few have been done on the area of morpho-syntax. Nevertheless, we shall review them as
they constitute our base.
2.2 Empirical studies
Nwankwo (2011) examines the syntactic errors among GSM users and discovers such dominant features as
omissions of punctuation marks, incorrect phrasal combinations, spellings and the use of abbreviations. She
warns that the users of this innovative language should be conscious of these deviations not to transfer the habit
in writing to the formal English. Iloelunachi (2011) studies the relationship between the syntax of the SMS
language style and the language of media. Comparing their syntactic structures, his result reveals that SMS
language format are structured differently from that of formal writing. He therefore, strongly suggests that
learners should be taught on how best to apply the forms with due recognition for formal and informal contexts
while writing. Oladoye (2011) investigates the syntactic and lexico-semantic analyses of selected SMS text
messages among the university of Ilorin students. The result shows that among the word classes, the most
frequently occurring element is the noun with 39.22%. It discovers that all the text messages had noun elements
in them. The most prominent word sequence was the clause which had 20.5%. Ogbonna (2012) made a
sociolinguistic study of the local colouration in mobile phone text messaging in Nigeria. Adopting Hymes’ (1962)
Ethnography of Speaking, she discovers that young Nigerian text composers blend their knowledge of Nigeria
social, linguistic, cultural, political and economic settings with their knowledge of conventions of organization of
SMS messaging within Nigerian context to create different types of messages that are meaningful. The study
reveals that for most Nigerian youths, the major purpose of texts is social bonding and in expressions that are
Nigeria specific. However, the present study examines the morpho-syntactic aspects of text messages as
contained in the messages sent or received by the students of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
2.3 Morpho-Syntax
2.3.1 Morphology and morphological processes
Morphology studies the internal structure of words. It is the way the speech sounds are stringed together to form
words. Morphological processes are those processes employed in linguistics to form new words in a language.
Sanmi (2010) identified eight ways by which words are formed. They include: affixation, compounding
reduplication, acronym, blends, conversion, back-formation, clipping etc. We shall only discuss the
morphological processes of Compounding, Blending and Acronyms
2.3.2 Compounding is neither inflection nor derivation; it is a combination of two or more independent words.
The product of the words formed stands as a free morpheme. According to Lyons (1868), Zwicky (1985) and
Sanmi (2010:59), the compound formed is a morphological complex unit in linguistics; it is unquestionable
among linguists. It can be formed by adding a noun to another noun as in star lights, noun to a verb as in
kickback etc.
2.3.3 Blending
It is a process in morphology where new words are formed by combining the initial and the final segments of
two or more already existing words in a language. Adams (1973) says that blends words made of parts of
morphemes usually formed by joining the parts of two diff’ words together. Sanmi (2010:65) observes there are
two types of blends; the first cannot be analysed into constituents but contains elements which may remind us of
other words similar to them. For instance smog tells us of smoke and fog. Quirk (1986) contends that the second
type of blend consists of words seen as contracted forms of compounds, that is, words in which one element is
fragmentary when compared to its corresponding uncompounded form. Example, Breakfast + Launch → brunch,
carpet + cafetaria → capetaria
2.3.4 Acronyms
They are new words formed from joining the first letters of two sets of words. Oladoye (2011:36) writes that
"when the initial letters are pronounced with the name of the letters of the alphabet, they are called
‘alphabetisms’ but when they are pronounced like individual words, they are called acronyms". Examples
include: WHO, NEPA, YES (Youth Empowerment Scheme), AIDS etc. The morphological style is languagespecific,
Morphologically, there is no hard and fast rule with regards to the users’ choice of letters in abbreviation
Texters use a combination of letters and numbers in their text messages and in some cases they use only
numerals The data shows that morphological processes of word formation such as compounding, acronyms and
blends are common features that are found in messages of the interlocutors The analysis also reveals that the
SMS text is seriously controlled by socio-linguistic variables as shared background knowledge, the
metapragmatic principles of economy, user’s reasonability and efficiency
In conclusion, the stylistic device in SMS texts captured in word modifications, phrasal and clausal
manipulations and excessive liberty afforded to the subscribers have given rise to novice language which affects
the morpho-syntactic aspects of the Standard English format
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Appendix
M1 Saw ur calWhats gwan?
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M5 Love the card, tanks
M9 Tanks, I love the card
M12 For one to beat John is tough
M20 Left for Aba yestade
M21 Will cloz 20th Aug
M22 Hope u enjoyed the meal
M23 For this purpose we are born
M24 Called but no picking join the merigoround @ d freedom square
M25 Pd in30k jus now tex me d make of d laptop is it fairly used or new
M26 Invited u 2 an interview wit d diosecan CWO @ 3pm on September 8
M27 Avail bal10,077
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e-mail: nokiawins1@livecouk
M29 Hi,gud monin, sori if sounded rude 2dy Didn’t mean any harm sori bt pls i dnt tlk 2 guys on d road even
if u must tlk 2 me on d way, u do dat politelysori
M30 feeling so happy, so kul, so high Do u know why? cuz i m so lucky, do u know how? cuz God loves
meDo u know how? cuz he gave me a gift Do u know what? its YOU my love
M31 wassup? I de house
M32 Ngozi ‘ll wed 15th Dec Hope u’ll bring wedin gown
M33 Beyond Ur fears and visions lay unfallable hand of the unfallable lord It’s a nw hope,liv wit it & enjoy nw
month!
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HORRIBLE, DISGUSTING! ‘ve ur examiner gotn approval?
M35 Dili had an accident,she wnt 2 buy sumtin n a bottle mistakenly fel on her leg n cut her veinWe jst cmin
4rm medical center
M36 I didn’t forge as planned, the man kum disapoint Na carryova be dat
M37 G/evening sir & hw r u doin Diz is 2 officialy invite u 2 my bday party wit Rotract club of UNN @
physics 3rd yr class carver building by 2 pm
plz kindly dress formal
M38 Its beta nt 2 dan 2 fall in luv wit 1 who doesn’t luv u in return U ‘ve nt bn callin emotionpach is d most
chronic pach 1 can tink of U said u luv me bt ur actns nor words doesn’t show it, nt even in tex, flashn or cals I
said it @ d initial tym, tnk God 4 my kind of personUr wish is granted anywayWish u d best in life
M39 Wnt 2 com Bac 2deyI wil come 2morrow Ope (hope) u r ok
M40 D guy name apia for notice bod, they say he take exam 4 sbody O boy don go bi dat oo
M41 Cos i was hurrying i forgot to giv u d meseg
M42 I no eat 4 nite com de tek bfast 4 eleven o’ clock Dis assignment de show me
M43 D NFCS final yr forum hold her semina dis sat 18/2/12Time :10:30 am venue :seat of wisdom
hall ,speaker Nath Francis Hp fyn
M44 Dear hw is ur health,hope ur gettn beta plz reply luv u dear
M45 Luv is d dream of nature giving 2 liten man’s burden, lv meks simple d imposible tins of lyf It shyns n
neva fades Hapi val
M46 You know wat? I read d txt wit ma frnd
M47 Fyno and u, hw wz ur day? ope kul
M48 Imagin a wrld witout pipple & pipple witout love,luv is sometin dat al cherish, few understood Let us
define it wit our lives apy val
M49 Broda rejoice with me d battle is ova, my Supervisor has won DVC
M50 Plz am in d church ok
M51 If i were a tear in ur eye i wood roll down onto ur lipsBut if u were a tear in my eye i wood never cry as
i wood be afraid 2 lose u!
M52 D outbreak of ur breaktru in dis new yr shall be faster dan speed of 8ty rocket stars God shall grant
u all ur effort wit gud sucsess
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91
M53 Do u relate wt people well? Gud,u re invited 2 a shearing forum of d final forum on Etiquette in human
relationships dis Thursday immediately after d evin mass NFCS Finalist - the lord is our strength
M54 Am just wakin from sleepI 8 heavli last nite I missed d church just bcos no one kia 2 wake me
M55 Imilike undergraduate asso meetin holds as folos: date:11/2/12(sun) time:3pm venue:socsc quardranghte
agenda :rendering account and first year induct
Plse be there
M56 It’s ova b/w us Caught her wit anoda boy at d motel along Benin express
M57 May u live long laik corruption in Nigeria, may ur generocity spread laik poverty and AIDS in naija, may
ur enemies fall laik naira value, may ur blessing increase laik fuel price in naija, may ur happiness rise laik
unemployment, may u nt fail laik NEPA in Nigeria nd may God fight ur enemies more powerful than Boko
Haram in Nigeria Api new month!
M58 CheersBig Tony I dnt evn knw hw to tel u ths bt i have 2D truth is dt av nt ben paidDe promise to pay
me on Wednesday unfailnly I knw its goin 2b like abmbplz bea wt me
M59 No airtym to reply ystrday,the credit exprd 2 days ago D nxt cash i get ‘ll com ur wayi had a serious
crash wit d car bt i won’t repair it until we’r got dat laptop
M60 Wishing you the best in ur exams bles you as u join our felo/ship Be on fire 4 christ & ur blessn is
assured Me 2 is already in flames 4 dis purpose
M61 Life ends wen you stop drimin, hop ends wen you stop believing and luv ends wen you stop caring
So drim hope and love - Makes Life Beautiful
M62 God has givn u d opportunity to rule & reign ova life’s circmstances’ve a nice de!
M63 Ist time i saw u i was scared 2 touch u1st time i touched u i was scared 2 kiss u1st time i kiss u i was
scared to luv ubut now dat i luv u im scared 2 lose u!
M64 NGN8,000 has been debited with your account on 30-Aug- 2013 by cash W/D self Bal
NGN20,00032CR
M65 NGN60000 credit was transferred frm my SIM 2 ur phone enjoy
M67 conventn hold at Nathan Ejiogu Buildin by 10am prompt NFCS secretariat
M68 Need a gud job!, text AVNSUB073 to 33070 start receiving job vacancies alert daily
M69 Tanx 4 giving, u’l av more in return
M70 Av dominion ova laif struggles U’r an ovacomer
M71 Strike is total no teachin, gona go swimin
M72 Movment frm d VC’s lodge 2 Lagos sat Aug 24th 4 wedin of Emma Nzeako-Pol Science Dept FUNAI
M73 Just 2 let u know he survived tank God
M74 breakin news check telecast by 7pm 2day
M75 Call me when u hv free period b/4 noon I’l be there b/w 8 &12am
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